궁동영어 of expected high school graduation are not yet available from this source, as this latest longitudinal study sampled 9th graders who had an expected high school graduation of 2013. 83 SES is a composite measure that NCES derived in a comparable manner for the three studies. We use the SES measure rather than family income, as SES is a more robust measure than the single measure of self-reported family income. The latter tends to have a high rate of missing data and is subject to reporting error in the high school studies. 84 While NCES adjusted for non-response and has engaged in increased follow-up efforts, over time there has been growing reluctance of high-poverty schools to participate in the NCES-sponsored (voluntary) sample surveys. This unwillingness to participate was especially pronounced in ELS:2002. 85 See methodological appendices: Lauff, E., & Ingels, S. J. (2014). A First Look at 2002 High School Sophomores 10 Years Later, Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002) (NCES 2014-363). U.S. Department of Education; Ingels, S. J., Kaufman, P., Curtin, T. R., Alt, M. N., & Chen, X. (2002). Coming of Age in the 1990s: The Eighth Grade Class of 1988 12 Years Later. Initial Results from the Fourth Follow-up to the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988 (NCES 2002–321). U.S. Department of Education Office of Educational Research and Improvement; Tuma, J., Geis, S., & Carroll, C. D. (1995). High School and Beyond Educational Attainment of 1980 High School Sophomores by 1992. 1992 Descriptive Summary of 1980 High School Sophomores 12 Years Later. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. 100 2018 Equity Indicators Report for the NELS:88 cohort (8 percent). But the percentage of individuals from the lowest SES quartile who attained at least a bachelor’s degree nearly doubled to 15 percent for the 2002 10th graders in ELS. As noted above, some of the increase in educational attainment between 1988 8th graders and 2002 10th graders may be related to the fact that the NELS:88 sampled cohort was younger than the ELS:02, allowing students two additional years to potentially drop out of high school. This difference would downward bias bachelor’s degree completion rates compared with a study (like ELS:02) that had an older entering cohort. Census Bureau data show that high school non-completion rates are higher for those with lower incomes than for those with higher incomes (see Appendix A). Thus, this caution may be more applicable for understanding trends over time in completion rates for the lowest than the highest quartile.86 Over the three study periods, the highest SES quartile has shown less variability in high school dropout rates and less gain in both high school and bachelor’s degree completion rates than the bottom three SES quartiles. For youth in the highest SES quartile, the percentages attaining at least a bachelor’s degree within 8 or 10 years of expected high school graduation were similar in the two most recent studies (62 percent for NELS and 60 percent for ELS), but higher than the earlier study (52 percent for HS&B). Bachelor’s degree attainment rates also increased across the three cohorts for youth in the middle SES quartiles. Attainment rates for youth in the second SES quartile increased from 15 percent in the HS&B:1980 cohort, to 19 percent in the NELS:88 cohort, to 22 percent in the ELS:2002 cohort. For those in the third SES quartile, bachelor’s degree attainment rates increased from 27 percent, to 32 percent, to 37 percent. Bachelor’s degree attainment rates within 8 or 10 years of expected high school graduation were 45 percentage points lower for youth in the lowest than the highest SES quartile in ELS:2002 (60 percent versus 15 percent). This gap is smaller than the 54 percentage point difference found for the longitudinal study of 1988 8th graders (NELS:88; 62 percent versus 8 percent) but the same as for the longitudinal study of 1980 10th graders (HS&B, 52 percent versus 7 percent). 86 Although SES and income are different measures, family income is one component
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